Reporting Models of Online Hate

As the internet provides a platform for the rapid dissemination of harmful content, effective mechanisms for reporting and addressing these incidents become crucial.

This report examines the various models and approaches used by Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) and Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) to report online hate crimes. By studying the range of models employed in the European Union (EU) and beyond, this study seeks to establish optimal parameters for standardised reporting that align with the requirements of the Digital Services Act (DSA). The ultimate goal is to enhance the integration of these reporting mechanisms into existing working practices, thereby improving the effectiveness of efforts to counter online hate and promote social inclusion.

Different types of reporting models and approaches to report hate crime

Hate crime reporting models and approaches can be broadly categorised into three main types: platform reporting, police reporting, and third-party organisation reporting. 

Platform reporting

Platform reporting involves using online platforms, such as social media or dedicated websites, to report instances of hate speech and hate crimes. These platforms often have built-in mechanisms for users to flag content that violates community standards or legal norms. The advantages of platform reporting include the ability to reduce harmful content quickly, improve community safety, and empower users to take action. However, this approach can suffer from a lack of transparency, potential ineffectiveness and delays, and complications due to the transnational nature of online content. Other drawbacks include limited support for victims, issues with the permanence of content removal (Take down - stay down issue), subjectivity and bias in moderation, and user-unfriendly interfaces within the DSA framework.

Police reporting 

Police reporting involves making reports directly to law enforcement agencies, either online or in person. This formal approach can lead to legal actions and investigations, offering the benefits of legal accountability, formal investigations, increased public awareness, and the potential for inter-agency collaboration. However, police reporting is often resource-intensive, faces jurisdictional issues, poses risks of retaliation against reporters and/or victims, and raises privacy concerns. Additionally, the process can be lengthy, and there is a significant issue of underreporting due to fear or lack of trust. 

Third-party organisation

Third-party organisation reporting involves reporting hate crimes to CSOs or other third-party groups that advocate for victims, offer support services, and may collaborate with law enforcement or platforms. This approach provides specialised expertise in specific types of hate crimes, offers victim support services, raises advocacy and awareness, and allows for anonymous reporting. However, third-party organisations often face resource constraints, have limited enforcement power, maintain inconsistent standards across organisations, and depend heavily on funding and resources.

What hate crimes are being reported?

Hate crimes reported online across various platforms and jurisdictions typically encompass a wide range of offences targeting individuals or groups based on specific protected characteristics. The digital manifestation of these crimes often involves hate speech, harassment, and incitement to violence. Here are some common categories of online hate crimes that are frequently reported.

• Racial and Ethnic Hate Speech

  Online incidents involving offensive, abusive, or threatening language directed at individuals or groups based on their race or ethnicity. This includes racial slurs, derogatory remarks, and incitement to racial hatred.

• Religious Hate Speech

  Hate crimes targeting individuals or groups based on their religious beliefs or practices. This includes antisemitic remarks, Islamophobic comments, and other forms of religious intolerance.

• Gender-Based Hate Speech

  Online hate crimes targeting individuals based on their gender, often focusing on women and transgender individuals. This includes misogynistic comments, threats of sexual violence, and gender-based harassment.

• Sexual Orientation Hate Speech

  Online incidents targeting individuals or groups based on their sexual orientation. This includes homophobic and biphobic remarks, threats, and incitement to violence against LGBTQ+ individuals.

• Disability-Based Hate Speech

  Online hate crimes targeting individuals with physical or mental disabilities. This includes ableist language, derogatory remarks, and incitement to violence against disabled individuals.

• National Origin Hate Speech

  Online incidents involving offensive, abusive, or threatening language directed at individuals or groups based on their national origin. This includes comments that disparage someone's country of origin or nationality.

• Hate Speech Based on Other Protected Characteristics

  This category includes online hate crimes targeting individuals or groups based on other protected characteristics such as age, language, political affiliation, or socioeconomic status.

Addressing underreporting

To effectively address the underreporting of hate crimes, several strategies need to be implemented to ensure that victims feel safe and supported in coming forward. Here are a few recommendations.

Enhancing accessibility and awareness of reporting mechanisms

This can be achieved by developing user-friendly online reporting platforms that are accessible to individuals with disabilities and available in multiple languages.

Building trust between marginalised communities and law enforcement

Law enforcement agencies should engage in community outreach programs to build relationships with these communities. This includes hiring liaison officers who represent diverse communities and providing training for all officers on cultural competency and sensitivity. 

Conduct public awareness campaigns

These campaigns play a vital role in destigmatising the reporting of hate crimes. It is important to highlight the importance of addressing all forms of hate crimes and assure victims that their reports will be taken seriously.

Providing robust support systems and legal protections

This includes offering psychological support, legal advice, and advocacy services to victims of hate crimes. 

Looking forward

The study of existing reporting models for hate speech across various jurisdictions highlights the importance of structured, legally grounded, and collaborative approaches to combating online hate crimes.

Effective reporting mechanisms, such as Germany’s “REspect!” platform, the UK’s Reporting Hate Speech Centre, and France’s Pharos platform, provide valuable insights into best practices for addressing hate speech.

The implementation of the DSA across the EU provides a unified framework for removing illegal content and enhancing cooperation between online platforms and law enforcement. This legislative support is crucial for ensuring a consistent and effective response to online hate speech across member states.